Q. Why are genetic resources important?
A. Genetic resources are found in all
living things. All agricultural commodities, including
modern varieties, descend from a variety of wild and improved
genetic resources found around the world. As a critical
input into agricultural R&D; systems, genetic resources
affect domestic and world food security through productivity
and onfield vulnerability. Agriculture also depends on
diverse genetic resources found in the wild, which help
sustain the larger ecosystem in which agriculture operates
Before the development of modern varieties, farmers
relied on landraces, or varieties of crops or livestock
that evolved and were improved by farmers over many generations
without using modern breeding techniques. Modern breeding
techniques have helped to lower costs, achieve desired
characteristics, and increase yields. Modern varieties
now dominate in the production of major cereal crops around the world. It is estimated that genetic improvements
have accounted for half the U.S. yield gains in major cereal crops
since the 1930's (OTA).
Along with these achievements, however, many scientists believe
that the genetic base of major crops has narrowed. Genetic uniformity
can increase the risks of pests and diseases spreading throughout
a crop, as occurred in the 19th-century Irish potato famine and
the Southern corn leaf blight of 1970 in the United States. Breeders
continually need fresh genetic resources (including wild relatives
and landraces) as they search for traits to maintain or improve
yields and to keep high-yielding varieties less vulnerable to pests
and diseases.
Thus, the collection, preservation, and sustained use of genetic
resources have become critical for continued agricultural productivity
and food security. It is estimated that gene banks currently hold
more than six million samples of crop varieties, including a majority
of the world's cereal landraces (FAO, Plucknett). However, relatively
few wild relatives of domesticated varieties are held in gene banks.
Furthermore, funding levels for many gene banks are limited, and
rapid degradation of the existing pool of genetic diversity in many
parts of the world raises concerns that valuable traits could disappear
before they can be cataloged and analyzed. These factors suggest
that greater investment in collecting and preserving agricultural
genetic resources may be needed.
As with conservation of natural habitats, public and private incentives
to develop and preserve genetic resources often diverge. Public
agricultural research funds breeding that would likely be unprofitable
for private breeders. This is especially important in breeding for
public good characteristics, such as environmental quality and food
security. New varieties of many staple crops grown in developing
countries have come from public sector institutions.
Historically, genetic material (including farmer-developed landraces)
was regarded as the common heritage of humankind, and developing
countries provided free access to their genetic resources. While
developing countries may benefit from this exchange in the form
of lower food prices, some countries maintain that this system is
inequitable. The 1992 U.N. Convention on Biological Diversity, designed
to foster the preservation and equitable use of genetic resources
worldwide, grants countries sovereign rights to their genetic resources
collected after treaty ratification, allowing countries to sell
genetic resources or to refuse access to other countries altogether.
Finally, nonagricultural genetic resources also affect the ecosystems
in which agriculture operates, another determinant of agricultural
productivity. Some genetic resources are imperative for agricultural
production. For example, many crops require or benefit from insect
pollination, while a variety of micro-organisms enhance and promote
soil productivity. In addition, well-functioning ecosystems protect
watersheds, prevent soil erosion and flooding, store and recycle
organic nutrients and industrial wastes, and help to regulate the
climate.
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