Note: The
third paragraph of this article has been updated to reflect
new information received after the print edition went to press.
All crops, whether traditional varieties selected and harvested
by farmers or modern varieties bred by professional plant breeders,
descend from wild and improved genetic
resources (also called germplasm) collected around the world.
Plant selection and breeding do not end once an improved variety
is achieved because the challenges facing crop productionpests,
pathogens, and climatesconstantly evolve and change. To make
crops more resistant to pests and diseases and to improve food supply
quality, quantity, and variety, modern plant breeders continually
seek genetic resources from outside the stocks with which they routinely
work.
Since no nation has within its borders the desired spectrum of
genetic resources, international collection and exchange occurs.
Not all participants in this exchange, however, view the benefits
as fairly balanced between donors and recipients. Another issue
is that valuable genetic resources not yet collected and preserved
may be endangered by land use changes in some countries.
To address these issues, delegates from 116 countries voted in
November 2001 to adopt the text of a new United Nations International
Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
When ratified or acceded to by 40 countries (21 countries have
done so, as of June 19, 2003--this number has been updated from
the 17 countries cited in the print edition.), the new treaty will
enter into force and govern the international exchange of designated
crop genetic resources.
It will also attempt to resolve longstanding issues over how the
benefits derived from the use of genetic resources are shared.
The success of the new treaty will depend to a great extent on
whether its provisions actually facilitate international exchange
and whether expectations are met concerning benefits sharing. When
implemented, the treaty will affect the U.S., which has one of the
largest national germplasm collections in the world and the largest
national investment in plant breeding.
Why Is Germplasm Important?
The relationship between access to genetic resources and agricultural
production is often overlooked. The plant breeding process is complex
and continual, and diverse genetic resources are a critical input.
Advances in yield potential, pest resistance, quality, and other
desirable traits in modern varieties have resulted from professional
breeders crossing diverse parental genetic material. Farmers who
rely on their crop output for seed or consumption and professional
plant breeders both depend on crop genetic resources. In turn, the
efforts of farmers and plant breeders can generate new genetic resources.
About 10,000 years ago, people in parts of Asia, the Near East,
and Mesoamerica (modern-day Mexico and Central America) began to
deliberately cultivate specific species. Over the generations, farmers
selected and improved particular crops. In many parts of the world,
this process continues today with farmer-developed varieties known
as landraces (see Types of Germplasm). Landraces
have been adapted to specific environments, and the areas in which
they grow host many diverse varieties.
Types
of Germplasm
Advanced (or elite)
germplasm includes 1) "cultivars,"
or cultivated varieties, which are suitable for planting by
farmers, either recently developed cultivars or "obsolete"
cultivars that are no longer grown, and 2) advanced breeding
material that breeders combine to produce new cultivars (sometimes
referred to as "breeding materials").
Improved germplasm is any plant
material containing one or more traits of interest that have
been incorporated by scientific selection or planned crossing.
Landraces
are varieties of crops improved by farmers over many generations
without the use of modern breeding techniques. Within a modern
breeding program, landraces are sometimes used for resistance
traits, and extensive efforts are generally required before
their genes can be used in a final variety.
Wild or weedy relatives
are plants that share a common ancestry with a crop species
but have not been domesticated. These plants can serve as
another source of resistance traits, but these traits can
be very difficult to incorporate in final varieties.
Genetic stocks
are mutants or other germplasm with genetic abnormalities
that may be used by plant breeders for specific purposes.
Genetic stocks are often used for highly sophisticated breeding
and basic research.
Modern Plant Breeding
Generally, plant breeders prefer to work with existing
cultivars or advanced breeding materials (sometimes
called elite materials) because these adapted sources
of material are already highly productive and relatively
easy to intermate. But because pests and diseases evolve
over time, breeders continually need new and diverse
germplasm from outside the standard gene pool to find
specific traits to maintain or improve yields. Sometimes
as a last resort, breeders rely on landraces and wild
relatives of crops, but these generally carry unwanted
traits that are linked with a desirable traits
gene, making it difficult to incorporate the trait into
high-yielding cultivars. When used, however, genes from
landraces or wild relatives often have had disproportionately
large and beneficial impacts. Some breeders also seek
and use traits and information from genetic stocks,
which include mutants and other germplasm with genetic
abnormalities.
The advent of biotechnology may expand the scope of
desired traits that can be incorporated in new varieties.
The use of biotechnological techniques, such as molecular
markers, may make it easier to in-corporate the beneficial
characteristics of landraces and wild relatives of agricultural
crops. Biotechnology also can be used to incorporate
traits from very disparate species. The challenges of
developing pest and disease resistance and im-provements
in yield potential remain the same regardless of whether
a plant is conventionally bred or bioengineered.
The places of initial domestication of different crops are called
centers of origin, many of which are in todays
developing countries (see Centers of Origin of Selected
Crops). Most crops of major economic importance to the U.S.
originated elsewhere. In addition, genetic resources from around
the world continue to play a critical role in maintaining varietal
improvement in U.S.-produced crops (see box, "Modern Plant
Breeding," on right). For example, the genes that provide resistance
to yellow dwarf disease in U.S. barley varieties were obtained from
Ethiopia. The sources of resistance to stem rust disease for U.S.
commercial wheat varieties include a wild plant originating in the
Caucasus and a Spanish durum landrace.
The U.S. is also a leading participant in the international collection
and exchange of crop genetic resources. Holdings in the U.S.
National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) exceed 450,000 accessions,
comprising 10,000 species of the 85 most commonly grown crops, making
the U.S. system one of the largest national gene banks in the world.
NPGS includes publicly funded collections located across the country
as well as centralized facilities for plant exploration coordination,
quarantine, and long-term germplasm storage. Although most of the
NPGS germplasm is not native to the U.S., the costs of collecting
and preserving germplasm have been borne almost entirely by the
U.S.
Although relatively few major crops originated in the U.S., sample
collection efforts, extensive plant breeding, and germplasm regeneration
have made the U.S. a net supplier of plant germplasm to the rest
of the world. Between 1993 and 2002, NPGS sent more than 1.2 million
samples to requestors free of charge, with 30 percent of the samples
going to requestors in foreign countries. Overall, the U.S. distributed
about seven times more germplasm internationally than it received
from international sources between 1990 and 1995. Such international
germplasm transfers, as well as new international acquisitions,
may be subject to the provisions of the new treaty after it enters
into force.
Besides the number of samples distributed, another significant
contribution of NPGS is the breadth of material provided, which
includes landraces, wild relatives, and genetic stocks. NPGS has
also added to the improved germplasm accessible to international
breeders. More than 40 percent of the U.S. samples distributed internationally
in 1990-95 were advanced or improved materials created
through research and breeding.
International Issues and Agreements
Historically, plant genetic material was generally freely collected
and shared. Todays developing countrieswith a wealth
of biological diversity in situ (in the wild and on fields)were
often the source of raw genetic material collected by public gene
banks worldwide.
Now, however, critics argue that unrestricted access to germplasm
unaccompanied by benefit sharing results in an inequitable system
of exchange. For example, freely shared crop traits from donor countries
could be incorporated into varieties by researchers in developed
countries and then sold back to donor country farmers by private
seed companies. The lack of direct compensation is seen as giving
donor countries little incentive to conserve genetic resources,
some of which are now at risk of extinction. Proponents counter
that a system of free exchange indirectly compensates
lower income countries for donations of raw genetic materials in
two ways. First, these countries have had free access to public
gene banks, whose holdings include improved varieties. Second, many
lower income countries are net importers of food, and consumers
in those countries benefit from lower world food prices made possible
by genetic improvements, regardless of where the improvements were
made.
Several international agreements have sought to further the preservation
of genetic resources and to balance the sharing of benefits generated
by their use. In 1983, the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources
(now the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture)
was established under the auspices of the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The Commission developed
the International Undertaking, a nonbinding treaty to govern the
exchange of genetic resources, but some developing and developed
countries (including the U.S.) did not commit to its implementation.
In 1992, the U.N. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was established,
with a focus on the preservation of biodiversity, especially those
genetic resources with pharmaceutical and industrial rather than
agricultural uses. In an attempt to ensure equitable returns to
donor countries for the use of native resources (and to spur conservation),
the CBD granted nations sovereign rights to genetic resources within
their borders, which in practice meant both nonagricultural and
agricultural germplasm. The U.S. has signed, but not yet ratified,
the CBD.
International agreements on intellectual property rights also have
implications for genetic resource conservation. Stronger intellectual
property rights provide incentives for private research and development
(R&D) investment, and, in theory, also enhance incentives for
conserving genetic resources. However, intellectual property law
varies from country to country and may not cover unimproved germplasm
and farmer-developed varieties. The World Trade Organizations
(WTO) agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights has provisions that can affect the exchange of germplasm.
WTO member countries must commit to implementing a system protecting
intellectual property for plant genetic resources, and noncompliance
can result in sanctions.
The New Treaty
The new International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture was intended to bring the International Undertaking
into conformity with the CBD. After lengthy negotiations, delegates
from 116 countries adopted the text of the treaty in November 2001,
with the American and Japanese delegates abstaining. The U.S. signed
the treaty in November 2002, but ratification will require the State
Department to submit the treaty to Congress for approval.
The new treaty has several objectives. First, it mandates the conservation
and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
Second, it seeks fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
out of the use of these resources. Finally, it establishes a multilateral
system to facilitate access to all crops listed in Annexes I and
II of the treaty (see Crops covered under the
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture)
and to share the benefits derived from such facilitated access under
the terms of a standard Material Transfer Agreement (MTA). The treaty
specifies that the terms of the standard MTA will be established
by the Governing Body at its first meeting after the treaty enters
into force.
Much remains to be resolved. Application of intellectual property
rights to plant genetic resources remains a contentious issue. Precisely
how benefits will be shared has yet to be determined and is complicated
by:
A lack of consensus regarding what equitable
benefit sharing means.
Disagreement over how to estimate the magnitude of benefits
derived from use of shared germplasm.
Substantial variability in benefit estimates derived from
similar assessment methods.
Unlike the CBD, which provides for bilateral negotiations to establish
the terms of access and benefit sharing for each specific exchange
of materials, all germplasm exchanges under the multilateral system
will be subject to the standard MTA. Monetary benefits will be paid
to a fund established by the Governing Body. This fund will be used
primarily to support farmers who conserve and sustainably use plant
genetic resources for food and agriculture, especially such farmers
in developing countries or in countries with economies in transition.
In October 2002, the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture, in its capacity as the interim committee of the
treaty, agreed to establish an Expert Group to develop and propose
recommendations on the terms of the standard MTA. The Expert Group
will include representatives from each FAO region and will provide
advice on the level, form, and manner of benefit-sharing payments.
They will also make recommendations regarding the level of payments
to be made by various categories of recipients and the conditions
under which recipients may be exempt from making payments. The first
meeting of the Expert Group is tentatively scheduled for summer
2003.
The new treaty addresses the financing of germplasm conservation
only in general terms, making this aspect of the treaty potentially
difficult to implement. The overall impact of the treaty is also
limited by its omission of soybeans, peanuts, and other major world
crops from the list of 35 crops covered.
Crops covered under the International
Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
Apple
Major aroids: includes taro, cocoyam, dasheen, and tannia
Asparagus
Banana/Plantain
Barley
Bean
Beet
Brassica complex: includes cabbage, rapeseed, mustard,
cress, rocket, radish, and turnip
Breadfruit
Carrot
Cassava
Chickpea
Citrus
Coconut
Cowpea
Eggplant
Faba bean /Vetch
Finger millet
Grass pea
Lentil
Maize (corn)
Oat
Pea
Pearl millet
Pigeon pea
Potato
Rice
Rye
Sorghum
Strawberry
Sunflower
Sweet potato
Triticale
Wheat
Yam
Forages 15 genera of legume forages
12 genera of grass forages
2 genera of other forage
Future International Reliance on Germplasm Exchange
As the new treaty is implemented, much of the focus will be on
how countries can reap the benefits of their genetic resource holdings.
However, the returns generated by any one set of genetic resources
are very uncertain and, given the lengthy time associated with plant
breeding, such returns are not likely to be realized quickly. Far
more certain is the critical role that genetic resources play in
the breeding process. Few countries are germplasm-rich with respect
to all their major crops. Dependence on genetic resources from other
nations is a significant factor for developed and developing countries
alike.
Expectations of international recipients of NPGS germplasm provide
some indication of future demand for public germplasm. According
to a study by ERS, academic, and international researchers, most
international recipients expected their demand for NPGS resources
to increase or stay the same (see Utility of
NPGS Materials). A higher share of recipients in developing
countries indicated they would increase their requests from the
NPGS in the next decade than did recipients from either developed
or transitional economies.
Because the NPGS plays such a significant role in providing germplasm
worldwide, the U.S. has assumed a responsibility not only to its
own crop breeders, but also to crop breeders throughout the world.
Since NPGS genetic resources are particularly valuable to developing
countries, given their limited funds for germplasm management, the
provisions of the International Treaty have the potential to affect
users of U.S. germplasm far beyond this countrys borders.
At the same time, the treaty could also affect the international
exchange of diverse germplasm needed by plant breeders to maintain
and improve U.S. crops in the future.
Utility of NPGS Materials
A team of ERS, academic, and international
researchers studied the utility of materials distributed internationally
from 1995 to 1999 by the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System
(NPGS), focusing on 10 major crops (barley, beans, corn, cotton,
rice, potatoes, sorghum, soybean, squash, and wheat). International
recipients indicated that 11 percent of the samples received
during the 5-year period had already been incorporated into
breeding programs in their respective countries. Another 42
percent of the received samples were still being evaluated
and 19 percent had been useful in other ways, such as material
for basic research, an often overlooked benefit. Only 28 percent
of materials were reported to have been not useful by the
respondents. Recipients in developing countries found NPGS
materials especially useful, reporting that 16 percent of
the germplasm samples had already been used in breeding programs,
about three times the share reported by respondents in developed
and transitional economies.
Original recipients of NPGS germplasm
can distribute that germplasm to additional users, generating
secondary benefits. International recipients shared an estimated
18 percent of all NPGS germplasm samples with users within
their own institutions and 10 percent with users at other
institutions.
In addition to the NPGS germplasm itself,
data about the germplasm, when available, also provide benefits.
For example, data on a samples varietal characteristics
and yield can speed the research and breeding process. For
the 10 crops in the study, respondents reported that 28 percent
of NPGS samples had data for the trait they were specifically
seeking, and 18 percent had data useful for other purposes.